Nausea and Vomiting of Early Pregnancy
Abstract
Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy is very common. The severest form, hyperemesis gravidarum,is important as mismanagement can lead to Wernicke’s encephalopathy, central pontine myelosis and death.
There is a lack of high-quality evidence in the management of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy and in the safety of the commonly used drugs, especially the reported side effects and their management. Pregnancies following bariatric surgery are becoming more frequent and care should be taken managing nausea and vomiting in this group since thiamine is primarily absorbed in the small intestine, and Wernicke’s encephalopathy has been described following some types of bariatric surgery. Severe cases of hyperemesis gravidarum warrant caution as Wernicke’s has been described following total parenteral nutrition,and it must be remembered that thiamine needs to be supplemented in this group. The etiology remains unknown and there is scope for research in this area.
References
1- following bariatric surgery is becoming more common.
References:
1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2004). Practice Bulletin No.52. Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 103 (4): 803-814.
2. Berdai M. A, Labib S, Harandou M (2016). Wernicke's Encephalopathy Complicating Hyperemesis during Pregnancy. Case Reports in Critical Care. Article ID 8783932, http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/8783932.
3. Boelig R. C, Barton S. J, Saccone G, Kelly A. J, Edwards S. J, Berghella V (2016). Interventions for treating hyperemesis gravidarum. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (5):CD010607. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010607.pub2.
4. Bohan P. K, Yonge J, Connelly C, Watson J. J, Friedman E, Fielding G (2016). Wernicke Encephalopathy after Restrictive Bariatric Surgery. Am Surg. 82(4):73-5.
5. Bolin M, Åkerud H, Cnattingius S, Stephansson O, and Wikström A. K (2013). Hyperemesis gravidarum and risks of placental dysfunction disorders: a population-based cohort study. BJOG. 120(5):541-7.
6. Boltman-Binkowski H (2016). A systematic review: Are herbal and homeopathic remedies used during pregnancy safe? Curationis. 13;39(1):1514.
7. Carstairs S. D (2016). Ondansetron use in pregnancy and Birth Defects: A Systematic Review. Obstet Gynecol. 127(5):878-83.
8. Chan R. L, Olshan A. F, Savitz D. A, Herring A. H, Daniels J. L, Peterson H. B, and Martin S. L (2011). Maternal influences on nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Matern Child Health J. 15(1):122-7. doi: 10.1007/s10995-009-0548-0.
9. Chou F. H, Avant K. C, Kuo S. H, and Fetzer S. J (2008). Relationships between nausea and vomiting, perceived stress, social support, pregnancy planning, and psychosocial adaptation in a sample of mothers: a questionnaire survey. Int J Nurs Stud. 45(8):1185-91.
10. Cohen R, Shlomo M, Dil D. N, Dinavitser N, Berkovitch M, and Koren G (2014). Intestinal obstruction in pregnancy by ondansetron. Reprod Toxicol. 50:152-3.
11. Einarson T. R, Piwko C, and Koren G (2013). Quantifying the global rates of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: a meta-analysis. J PopulTherClinPharmacol. 20 (2):71-83.
12. Fejzo M. S, Ching C, Schoenberg F. P, Macgibbon K, Romero R, Goodwin T. M, and Mullin P. M (2012). Change in paternity and recurrence of hyperemesis gravidarum. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 25(8):1241-5.
13. Fejzo M. S, Ingles S. A, Wilson M, Wang W, MacGibbon K, Romero R, and Goodwin T. M (2008). High prevalence of severe nausea and vomiting of pregnancy and hyperemesis gravidarum among relatives of affected individuals. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 141(1):13-7.
14. Fejzo M. S, MacGibbon K. W, and Mullin P. M (2016). Ondansetron in pregnancy and risk of adverse fetal outcomes in the United States. Reprod Toxicol. 62:87-91.
15. Fejzo M. S, MacGibbon K, and Mullin P (2015). Intestinal obstruction is a rare complication of ondansetron exposure in hyperemesis gravidarum. Reprod Toxicol. 57:207.
16. Fiaschi L, Nelson-Piercy C, and Tata L. J (2016). Hospital admission for hyperemesis gravidarum: a nationwide study of occurrence, reoccurrence and risk factors among 8.2 million pregnancies. Hum Reprod. 31(8):1675-84.
17. Gadsby R, Barnie-Adshead A. M, and Jagger C (1997). Pregnancy nausea related to women's obstetric and personal histories. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 43(2):108-111.
18. Gadsby R, and Barnie-Adshead A (2011). Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy - A literature review. Pregnancy Sickness Support. https://www.pregnancysicknesssupport.org.uk/documents/NVP-lit-review.pdf
19. Garbis H, Elefant E, Diav-Citrin O, Mastroiacovo P, Schaefer C, Vial T, Clementi M, Valti E, McElhatton P, Smorlesi C, Rodriguez EP, Robert-Gnansia E, Merlob P, Peiker G, Pexieder T, Schueler L, Ritvanen A, and Mathieu-Nolf M (2005). Pregnancy outcome after exposure to ranitidine and other H2-blockers. A collaborative study of the European Network of Teratology Information Services. Reprod Toxicol. 19(4):453-8.
20. García Rodríguez L. A, and Jick H (1994). Risk of gynaecomastia associated with cimetidine, omeprazole, and other antiulcer drugs. BMJ. 308(6927):503-6.
21. Giacosa A, Morazzoni P, Bombardelli E, Riva A, Bianchi Porro G, and Rondanelli M (2015). Can nausea and vomiting be treated with ginger extract? Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 19(7):1291-6.
22. Giugale L. E, Young O. M, and Streitman D. C (2015). Iatrogenic Wernicke encephalopathy in a patient with severe hyperemesis gravidarum. Obstet Gynecol. 125(5):1150-2.
23. Helseth R, Ravlo M, Carlsen S. M, and Vanky E. E (2014). Androgens and hyperemesis gravidarum: a case–control study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 175:167-71.
24. Jordan V, Grebe S. K, Cooke R. R, Ford H. C, Larsen P. D, Stone P. R, andSalmond C. E (1999). Acidic isoforms of chorionic gonadotrophin in European and Samoan women are associated with hyperemesis gravidarum and may be thyrotrophic. ClinEndocrinol (Oxf). 50(5):619-27.
25. Källén B, Lundberg G, and Aberg A (2003). Relationship between vitamin use, smoking, and nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 82(10): 916-920.
26. Koren G, Clark S, Hankins G. D, Caritis S. N, Miodovnik M, Umans J. G, and Mattison D. R (2010). Effectiveness of delayed-release doxylamine and pyridoxine for nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: a randomized placebo controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 203(6):571.e1-7.
27. Koren G, Madjunkova S, and Maltepe C (2014). The protective effects of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy against adverse fetal outcome--a systematic review. Reprod Toxicol. 47:77-80.
28. Lacasse A, Rey E, Ferreira E, Morin C and Bérard A (2008). Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: what about quality of life? BJOG. 115(12):1484-1493.
29. Louik C, Hernandez-Diaz S, Werler M. M, and Mitchell A. A (2006). Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: maternal characteristics and risk factors. PaediatrPerinatEpidemiol. 20(4):270-8.
30. Magee L. A, Inocencion G, Kamboj L, Rosetti F, and Koren G (1996). Safety of first trimester exposure to histamine H2 blockers. A prospective cohort study. Dig Dis Sci. 41(6):1145-9.
31. Matok I, Levy A, Wiznitzer A, Uziel E, Koren G, and Gorodischer R (2012). The safety of fetal exposure to proton-pump inhibitors during pregnancy. Dig Dis Sci. 57(3):699-705.
32. Matthews A, Dowswell T, Haas D. M, Doyle M and O'Mathúna D. P (2010). Interventions for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (9):CD007575. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD007575.
33. Matthews A, Haas D. M, O'Mathúna D. P, and Dowswell T (2003). Interventions for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (4):CD000145.
34. Mayhall E. A, Gray R, Lopes V, and Matteson K. A (2015). Comparison of antiemetics for nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in an emergency department setting. Am J Emerg Med. 33(7):882-6.
35. McCarthy F. P, Murphy A, Khashan A. S, McElroy B, Spillane N, Marchocki Z, Sarkar R, and Higgins J. R (2014). Day care compared with inpatient management of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 124(4):743-8.
36. McClure J. H, Cooper G. M. and Clutton-Brock T. H. (2011). Saving Mothers’ Lives: Reviewing maternal deaths to make motherhood safer: 2006–2008: a review. BJOG. 107 (2): 127-132.
37. Neill A. M, and Nelson-Piercy C (2003). Hyperemesis gravidarum. The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist. 5:204-7.
38. Niemeijer M. N, Grooten I. J, Vos N, Bais J. M, van der Post J. A, Mol B. W, Roseboom T. J, Leeflang M. M, and Painter R. C (2014). Diagnostic markers for Hyperemesis Gravidarum: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 211(2):150.e1-15. doi: 10.1016/j.
39. No authors listed (2016).Ondansetron and pregnancy: possible congenital heart defects. Prescrire Int. 25(171):129-30.
40. Nuangchamnong N, and Niebyl J (2014). Doxylamine succinate-pyridoxine hydrochloride (Diclegis) for the management of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: an overview. Int J Womens Health. 12; 6:401-9.
41. O'Donnell A, McParlin C, Robson S. C, Beyer F, Moloney E, Bryant A, Bradley J, Muirhead C, Nelson-Piercy C, Newbury-Birch D, Norman J, Simpson E, Swallow B, Yates L, Vale L (2016). Treatments for hyperemesis gravidarum and nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: a systematic review and economic assessment. Technol Assess. 20(74):1-268.
42. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (2016). The Management of Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy and Hyperemesis Gravidarum. Green-top Guideline No.69.
43. Sandven I, Abdelnoor M, Nesheim B. I, and Melby K. K (2009). Helicobacter pylori infection and Hyperemesis Gravidarum: a systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 88(11):1190-200.
44. Sanu O, and Lamont R. F. Hyperemesis gravidarum: pathogenesis and the use of antiemetic agents (2011).Expert Opin Pharmacother. 12(5):737-48.
45. Seto A, Einarson T, and Koren G (1997). Pregnancy outcome following first trimester exposure to antihistamines: meta-analysis. Am J Perinatol. 14(3):119-24.
46. Smith C, Crowther C, Beilby J, and Dandeaux J (2000). The impact of nausea and vomiting on women: a burden of early pregnancy. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 40(4):397-401.
47. Strugala V, Bassin J, Swales V. S, Lindow SW, Dettmar P. W, and Thomas E. C. M (2012). Assessment of the Safety and Efficacy of a Raft-Forming Alginate Reflux Suppressant (Liquid Gaviscon) for the Treatment of Heartburn during Pregnancy. ISRN Obstetrics and Gynecology. Article ID 481870, http://dx.doi.org/10.5402/2012/481870.
48. Subramaniam R, Soh E. B, Dhillon H. K, and Abidin H. Z (1998). Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN) and steroid usage in the management of hyperemesis gravidarum. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol. 38 (3): 339-41.
49. Swallow B. L, Lindow S. W, Masson E. A, and Hay D. M (2005). Women with nausea and vomiting in pregnancy demonstrate worse health and are adversely affected by odours. J Obstet Gynaecol. 25(6):544-9.
50. Taylor R (1996). Successful management of hyperemesis gravidarum using steroid therapy. QJM. 89(2):103-7.
51. Thomson M, Corbin R, Leung L (2014). Effects of ginger for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy: a meta-analysis. J Am Board Fam Med. 27(1):115-122.
52. Trogstad L. I, Stoltenberg C, Magnus P, Skjaerven R, and Irgens L. M (2005). Recurrence risk in hyperemesis gravidarum. BJOG. 112(12):1641-5.
53. Veenendaal M. V, van Abeelen AF, Painter R. C, van der Post J. A, and Roseboom T. J (2011). Consequences of hyperemesis gravidarum for offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG. 118(11):1302-13.
54. Vikanes A, Skjaerven R, Grjibovski A. M, Gunners N, Vangen S, and Magnus P (2010). Recurrence of hyperemesis gravidarum across generations: Population based cohort study. BMJ. 340-C2050.
55. Vikanes Å. V, Støer N. C, Magnus P, and Grjibovski A. M (2013). Hyperemesis gravidarum and pregnancy outcomes in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort - a cohort study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 13:169.
56. World Health Organization (2007). International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. 10th Rev. World Health Organization. Available from: http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online2007/.
57. Zhang Y, Cantor R. M, MacGibbon K, Romero R, Goodwin T. M, Mullin P. M, and Fejzo M. S (2011). Familial aggregation of hyperemesis gravidarum. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 204(3):230.e1–230.e7.
References:
1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2004). Practice Bulletin No.52. Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 103 (4): 803-814.
2. Berdai M. A, Labib S, Harandou M (2016). Wernicke's Encephalopathy Complicating Hyperemesis during Pregnancy. Case Reports in Critical Care. Article ID 8783932, http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/8783932.
3. Boelig R. C, Barton S. J, Saccone G, Kelly A. J, Edwards S. J, Berghella V (2016). Interventions for treating hyperemesis gravidarum. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (5):CD010607. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010607.pub2.
4. Bohan P. K, Yonge J, Connelly C, Watson J. J, Friedman E, Fielding G (2016). Wernicke Encephalopathy after Restrictive Bariatric Surgery. Am Surg. 82(4):73-5.
5. Bolin M, Åkerud H, Cnattingius S, Stephansson O, and Wikström A. K (2013). Hyperemesis gravidarum and risks of placental dysfunction disorders: a population-based cohort study. BJOG. 120(5):541-7.
6. Boltman-Binkowski H (2016). A systematic review: Are herbal and homeopathic remedies used during pregnancy safe? Curationis. 13;39(1):1514.
7. Carstairs S. D (2016). Ondansetron use in pregnancy and Birth Defects: A Systematic Review. Obstet Gynecol. 127(5):878-83.
8. Chan R. L, Olshan A. F, Savitz D. A, Herring A. H, Daniels J. L, Peterson H. B, and Martin S. L (2011). Maternal influences on nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Matern Child Health J. 15(1):122-7. doi: 10.1007/s10995-009-0548-0.
9. Chou F. H, Avant K. C, Kuo S. H, and Fetzer S. J (2008). Relationships between nausea and vomiting, perceived stress, social support, pregnancy planning, and psychosocial adaptation in a sample of mothers: a questionnaire survey. Int J Nurs Stud. 45(8):1185-91.
10. Cohen R, Shlomo M, Dil D. N, Dinavitser N, Berkovitch M, and Koren G (2014). Intestinal obstruction in pregnancy by ondansetron. Reprod Toxicol. 50:152-3.
11. Einarson T. R, Piwko C, and Koren G (2013). Quantifying the global rates of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: a meta-analysis. J PopulTherClinPharmacol. 20 (2):71-83.
12. Fejzo M. S, Ching C, Schoenberg F. P, Macgibbon K, Romero R, Goodwin T. M, and Mullin P. M (2012). Change in paternity and recurrence of hyperemesis gravidarum. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 25(8):1241-5.
13. Fejzo M. S, Ingles S. A, Wilson M, Wang W, MacGibbon K, Romero R, and Goodwin T. M (2008). High prevalence of severe nausea and vomiting of pregnancy and hyperemesis gravidarum among relatives of affected individuals. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 141(1):13-7.
14. Fejzo M. S, MacGibbon K. W, and Mullin P. M (2016). Ondansetron in pregnancy and risk of adverse fetal outcomes in the United States. Reprod Toxicol. 62:87-91.
15. Fejzo M. S, MacGibbon K, and Mullin P (2015). Intestinal obstruction is a rare complication of ondansetron exposure in hyperemesis gravidarum. Reprod Toxicol. 57:207.
16. Fiaschi L, Nelson-Piercy C, and Tata L. J (2016). Hospital admission for hyperemesis gravidarum: a nationwide study of occurrence, reoccurrence and risk factors among 8.2 million pregnancies. Hum Reprod. 31(8):1675-84.
17. Gadsby R, Barnie-Adshead A. M, and Jagger C (1997). Pregnancy nausea related to women's obstetric and personal histories. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 43(2):108-111.
18. Gadsby R, and Barnie-Adshead A (2011). Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy - A literature review. Pregnancy Sickness Support. https://www.pregnancysicknesssupport.org.uk/documents/NVP-lit-review.pdf
19. Garbis H, Elefant E, Diav-Citrin O, Mastroiacovo P, Schaefer C, Vial T, Clementi M, Valti E, McElhatton P, Smorlesi C, Rodriguez EP, Robert-Gnansia E, Merlob P, Peiker G, Pexieder T, Schueler L, Ritvanen A, and Mathieu-Nolf M (2005). Pregnancy outcome after exposure to ranitidine and other H2-blockers. A collaborative study of the European Network of Teratology Information Services. Reprod Toxicol. 19(4):453-8.
20. García Rodríguez L. A, and Jick H (1994). Risk of gynaecomastia associated with cimetidine, omeprazole, and other antiulcer drugs. BMJ. 308(6927):503-6.
21. Giacosa A, Morazzoni P, Bombardelli E, Riva A, Bianchi Porro G, and Rondanelli M (2015). Can nausea and vomiting be treated with ginger extract? Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 19(7):1291-6.
22. Giugale L. E, Young O. M, and Streitman D. C (2015). Iatrogenic Wernicke encephalopathy in a patient with severe hyperemesis gravidarum. Obstet Gynecol. 125(5):1150-2.
23. Helseth R, Ravlo M, Carlsen S. M, and Vanky E. E (2014). Androgens and hyperemesis gravidarum: a case–control study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 175:167-71.
24. Jordan V, Grebe S. K, Cooke R. R, Ford H. C, Larsen P. D, Stone P. R, andSalmond C. E (1999). Acidic isoforms of chorionic gonadotrophin in European and Samoan women are associated with hyperemesis gravidarum and may be thyrotrophic. ClinEndocrinol (Oxf). 50(5):619-27.
25. Källén B, Lundberg G, and Aberg A (2003). Relationship between vitamin use, smoking, and nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 82(10): 916-920.
26. Koren G, Clark S, Hankins G. D, Caritis S. N, Miodovnik M, Umans J. G, and Mattison D. R (2010). Effectiveness of delayed-release doxylamine and pyridoxine for nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: a randomized placebo controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 203(6):571.e1-7.
27. Koren G, Madjunkova S, and Maltepe C (2014). The protective effects of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy against adverse fetal outcome--a systematic review. Reprod Toxicol. 47:77-80.
28. Lacasse A, Rey E, Ferreira E, Morin C and Bérard A (2008). Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: what about quality of life? BJOG. 115(12):1484-1493.
29. Louik C, Hernandez-Diaz S, Werler M. M, and Mitchell A. A (2006). Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: maternal characteristics and risk factors. PaediatrPerinatEpidemiol. 20(4):270-8.
30. Magee L. A, Inocencion G, Kamboj L, Rosetti F, and Koren G (1996). Safety of first trimester exposure to histamine H2 blockers. A prospective cohort study. Dig Dis Sci. 41(6):1145-9.
31. Matok I, Levy A, Wiznitzer A, Uziel E, Koren G, and Gorodischer R (2012). The safety of fetal exposure to proton-pump inhibitors during pregnancy. Dig Dis Sci. 57(3):699-705.
32. Matthews A, Dowswell T, Haas D. M, Doyle M and O'Mathúna D. P (2010). Interventions for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (9):CD007575. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD007575.
33. Matthews A, Haas D. M, O'Mathúna D. P, and Dowswell T (2003). Interventions for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (4):CD000145.
34. Mayhall E. A, Gray R, Lopes V, and Matteson K. A (2015). Comparison of antiemetics for nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in an emergency department setting. Am J Emerg Med. 33(7):882-6.
35. McCarthy F. P, Murphy A, Khashan A. S, McElroy B, Spillane N, Marchocki Z, Sarkar R, and Higgins J. R (2014). Day care compared with inpatient management of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 124(4):743-8.
36. McClure J. H, Cooper G. M. and Clutton-Brock T. H. (2011). Saving Mothers’ Lives: Reviewing maternal deaths to make motherhood safer: 2006–2008: a review. BJOG. 107 (2): 127-132.
37. Neill A. M, and Nelson-Piercy C (2003). Hyperemesis gravidarum. The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist. 5:204-7.
38. Niemeijer M. N, Grooten I. J, Vos N, Bais J. M, van der Post J. A, Mol B. W, Roseboom T. J, Leeflang M. M, and Painter R. C (2014). Diagnostic markers for Hyperemesis Gravidarum: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 211(2):150.e1-15. doi: 10.1016/j.
39. No authors listed (2016).Ondansetron and pregnancy: possible congenital heart defects. Prescrire Int. 25(171):129-30.
40. Nuangchamnong N, and Niebyl J (2014). Doxylamine succinate-pyridoxine hydrochloride (Diclegis) for the management of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: an overview. Int J Womens Health. 12; 6:401-9.
41. O'Donnell A, McParlin C, Robson S. C, Beyer F, Moloney E, Bryant A, Bradley J, Muirhead C, Nelson-Piercy C, Newbury-Birch D, Norman J, Simpson E, Swallow B, Yates L, Vale L (2016). Treatments for hyperemesis gravidarum and nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: a systematic review and economic assessment. Technol Assess. 20(74):1-268.
42. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (2016). The Management of Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy and Hyperemesis Gravidarum. Green-top Guideline No.69.
43. Sandven I, Abdelnoor M, Nesheim B. I, and Melby K. K (2009). Helicobacter pylori infection and Hyperemesis Gravidarum: a systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 88(11):1190-200.
44. Sanu O, and Lamont R. F. Hyperemesis gravidarum: pathogenesis and the use of antiemetic agents (2011).Expert Opin Pharmacother. 12(5):737-48.
45. Seto A, Einarson T, and Koren G (1997). Pregnancy outcome following first trimester exposure to antihistamines: meta-analysis. Am J Perinatol. 14(3):119-24.
46. Smith C, Crowther C, Beilby J, and Dandeaux J (2000). The impact of nausea and vomiting on women: a burden of early pregnancy. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 40(4):397-401.
47. Strugala V, Bassin J, Swales V. S, Lindow SW, Dettmar P. W, and Thomas E. C. M (2012). Assessment of the Safety and Efficacy of a Raft-Forming Alginate Reflux Suppressant (Liquid Gaviscon) for the Treatment of Heartburn during Pregnancy. ISRN Obstetrics and Gynecology. Article ID 481870, http://dx.doi.org/10.5402/2012/481870.
48. Subramaniam R, Soh E. B, Dhillon H. K, and Abidin H. Z (1998). Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN) and steroid usage in the management of hyperemesis gravidarum. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol. 38 (3): 339-41.
49. Swallow B. L, Lindow S. W, Masson E. A, and Hay D. M (2005). Women with nausea and vomiting in pregnancy demonstrate worse health and are adversely affected by odours. J Obstet Gynaecol. 25(6):544-9.
50. Taylor R (1996). Successful management of hyperemesis gravidarum using steroid therapy. QJM. 89(2):103-7.
51. Thomson M, Corbin R, Leung L (2014). Effects of ginger for nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy: a meta-analysis. J Am Board Fam Med. 27(1):115-122.
52. Trogstad L. I, Stoltenberg C, Magnus P, Skjaerven R, and Irgens L. M (2005). Recurrence risk in hyperemesis gravidarum. BJOG. 112(12):1641-5.
53. Veenendaal M. V, van Abeelen AF, Painter R. C, van der Post J. A, and Roseboom T. J (2011). Consequences of hyperemesis gravidarum for offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG. 118(11):1302-13.
54. Vikanes A, Skjaerven R, Grjibovski A. M, Gunners N, Vangen S, and Magnus P (2010). Recurrence of hyperemesis gravidarum across generations: Population based cohort study. BMJ. 340-C2050.
55. Vikanes Å. V, Støer N. C, Magnus P, and Grjibovski A. M (2013). Hyperemesis gravidarum and pregnancy outcomes in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort - a cohort study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 13:169.
56. World Health Organization (2007). International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. 10th Rev. World Health Organization. Available from: http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online2007/.
57. Zhang Y, Cantor R. M, MacGibbon K, Romero R, Goodwin T. M, Mullin P. M, and Fejzo M. S (2011). Familial aggregation of hyperemesis gravidarum. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 204(3):230.e1–230.e7.
Published
2018-06-01
How to Cite
BASAMA, Faisal M. S.; ANTONIOU, Antonios.
Nausea and Vomiting of Early Pregnancy.
Gezira Journal of Health Sciences, [S.l.], v. 14, n. 1, june 2018.
ISSN 1810-5386. Available at: <http://37.60.236.48/index.php/gjhs/article/view/1274>. Date accessed: 03 june 2026.
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