Effects of application methods and dose rates of carbofuran
on the control of maize infesting stemborers and
consequences on agronomic, yield and yield parameters in central Sudan
Tag Elsir E. Abdalla1, Mahadi M. Zein2,
Abdelrahman A. Mohamed1
and Ismail S. Omer1
1 Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC), Gezira Research Station, Wad
Medani, Sudan.
2 ARC, Sennar Research Station, Sennar, Sudan.
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted at Gezira (GRS) and Sennar Research Stations (SRS) farms during 2014/2015
winter
season. Carbofuran was tested in form of "Carbodan 10 G®". The application methods were: Soil dressing method (SDM) applied with the seeds at sowing, top dressing
method (TDM) applied into whorls after emergence, and
broadcasting method (BM) applied after emergence. The doses were
0.225, 0.3 and 0.375g /hole in SDM and 5.85, 7.8 and 9.75kg/fed in each of TDM and BM. Untreated control (UC) was included in the test. Stemborers damage was assessed on
maize leaves and stems. Agronomic, yield and
yield parameters were timely recorded. Residue
analysis was performed in grains taken at milky and maturity stages. The ordered SDM, TDM and BM showed
decreasing trend of dead heart by scoring 6.1%, 5.7%, and 5.5% at GRS, and 7.3%, 4.6% and 3.1% at SRS, respectively, but didn’t
differ much by effects on leaves. An increasing
trend in number of cobs /fed was also evident. All carbofuran
treatments reduced percentage of infested plants to a range of 12.6%-16.8% vs. 22.4% in the UC at GRS, and 5.2%-15.5% vs. 30.5% in the UC at SRS. SDM at 0.375g/hole, TDM at 7.8 kg /fed and BM at 9.75 kg /fed recorded
significantly lower percentage of dead heart, 3.7%, 3.8% and 3.6%, vs. 14.0% in the UC at GRS, and 9.3%, 2.4% and 4.5% vs.
20.1% in the UC at SRS, respectively. They increased
plant stand, plant height, number of cobs
/fed, 1000-grain weight and grain yield by 32%-105% over the UC at
GRS and 46%-175% at SRS. TDM at 7.8 kg /fed produced
2.2 ton /fed which was about three times as much vs.
UC (0.8 ton /fed) at SRS (P≤0.05). No
residue of carbofuran and its metabolites were detected in all grain samples.
INTRODUCTION
Maize (Zea mays L.) is an
important crop worldwide. It ranks fourth in acreage and total
production in Sudan, after sorghum, millet and wheat and used as
human food and important ingredient in animal and poultry feed. Maize is
attacked by three major insect pests in Sudan, the spotted
(sorghum) stemborer Chilo partellus (Swinh) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), dura
stemborer Sesamia cretica (Led) and maize stalk borer Busseola
fusca (Full) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Maize may harbor
some less important minor and occasional insects. According to Abdalla (2000), the predominant
stemborer species at GRS farm are C. partellus and
S. cretica, prevailing at relative abundance of 90% to 10%, respectively.
C. partellus is native to Asia where it infests maize
and sorghum. Its first record in Africa refers back to 1930 in Malawi, since then it is showing-up
in many African countries including Sudan (CAB,
1977). C. partellus is present in almost all parts of Sudan, infesting
sorghum, maize, millet and many other species of wild grasses (Schmutterer, 1969).
S. cretica is reported in many
African, Asian and European countries, infesting sorghum,
maize, sugar cane, wheat and rice (Overholt et al., 2001). In Sudan, S. cretica occurs
in the drier irrigated parts, especially in the northern and central parts
(Schmutterer, 1969), causing serious damage
to sugar cane, and to a lesser extent sorghum and maize (El Amin, 1984). Stemborers are difficult
to control, largely because of the nocturnal habits of the adult moths
and the protection provided by the stem of the host crop for immature stages
(Seshu Reddy and Sum,
1992). Maize
yield loss due to stemborers in Africa is 20%-40%
of the
potential (Khan et al.,
2003).
In Sudan, winter maize is looked at
as a substitute crop to wheat in the irrigated
schemes; stemborers damage has been steadily increasing. Although
some attempts were made, no measures of control are
registered so far. In previous studies, Abdalla (2005) tested
carbofuran in form of "Furadan 10 G®"
at 0.844, 1.125 and
1.4g
product /hole in maize sown
in summer and winter seasons of 2004/2005,
using SDM. In summer, infestation was low; all carbofuran
treatments evenly reduced dead heart to a range of 1.7%-2.2% vs. 2.8% in the UC, and scored significantly higher yield,
ranging 1050-1181vs. 420kg/fed in the UC (P≤0.05). In winter, infestation was high;
the same even performance was achieved; dead heart damage ranged 8%-10.6% vs. 14%, and grain yield ranged 754-970 vs. 806
kg/fed in
the UC, respectively.
The dose 1.125g/hole, had shown the highest yield, and
hence, it was repeatedly
tested in summer and winter seasons of 2005/2006 for
confirmation, using the same SDM
(Abdalla,
2006). Summer season
had witnessed low infestation, and winter proved once more very high infestation. The
dose resulted in complete checking of stemborers throughout summer, by
scoring 0% dead heart vs. 0.8%, and grain yield of 1098 vs.1042 kg /fed in the UC. In winter, the tested dose scored dead
heart of 17% vs.
40.2% and
grain yield of 378 vs.
261 kg/fed in
the UC, respectively.
However, the dose showed severe phytotoxic and retarded growth effects
on plants, and hence, it was considered high and not developed as
control technique. But, the valuable conclusions achieved
constituted base line acquaintance for objectives of this study; to
identify suitable application method and appropriate dose rate of carbofuran to
safeguard winter maize from stemborers attack with minimum harmful
influence on plants, and consequences on agronomic, yield and
yield parameters. The study represents part of the Maize National
Program in Sudan, accredited to address the increasing national
need for stemborers management in winter maize.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted at GRS and
SRS farms during 2014/2015 winter season. A randomized complete block design with four replicates was adopted. Plot size was 16 m2 at both sites. Sowing of cultivar Hudeiba 2 with one seed/hole, was effected on 21 and 30 November, 2014, respectively, at inter- and intra-row spacing of 80x20 cm. Carbofuran was tested in form of "Carbodan
10®". The application methods were: Soil dressing method (SDM) applied with the seeds at sowing, top dressing method (TDM) applied
a week after emergence into whorls, and broadcasting method (BM) applied a
week after emergence. All methods were applied manually. The
tested doses were: 0.225, 0.3 and 0.375g product/hole, equivalent to 5.85, 7.8 and 9.75
kg/fed, respectively, in SDM, and 5.85, 7.8 and 9.75kg product/fed
in each of TDM and BM. The
corresponding lower, medium and higher doses in the three methods are equal;
in TDM and BM they represent the respective dose/hole in SDM, multiplied by the recommended plant population,
viz., 26000/fed. Untreated
control (UC) was included in the test
(Table 1).
Infestation of stemborers, Chilo partellus (Swinh) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Sesamia
cretica (Led) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) was assessed on leaves (rows of irregular holes) and stems
(dead heart), nine times at GRS and six at SRS at 7-10 day-intervals
and expressed in percentage. Infested leaves were considered those containing one or more number of
holes in them. Dead hearts were removed in each count. Agronomic parameters, viz., plant stand
at harvest, plant height, days to 50%
tasseling and silking, first cob height, number of cobs/fed,
cobs length, number of grains/cob, 1000-grain weight and grain and straw yield /fed were timely recorded
following ARC practices. Irrigation was applied at two week-intervals, weeding, addition of urea at 43kg N/fed and all other cultural practices were timely performed following ARC practices. Residue analysis was performed in grains taken at milky and maturity
stages, from the highest dose of
each application method, and the UC. The analytical
procedure involved solvent extraction of the homogenized grain samples, cleanup on silica gel column and analyses using
chromatographic technique with UV detection. The data were transformed when necessary, analyzed using ANOVA and means were separated according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT).
Table 1. Treatments:
Application methods x carbofuran "Carbodan 10 G®" dose rates.
|
Carbodan 10G dose |
Application method |
||||||||
|
SDM |
TDM |
BM |
|||||||
|
Tr. no. |
Product /hole(g) |
g a.i./hole |
Tr. no. |
product /fed(kg) |
g a.i./fed |
Tr. no. |
Product /fed(kg) |
g a.i./fed |
|
|
25% Lower |
1 |
0.225 |
0.00225 |
4 |
5.85 |
58.5 |
7 |
5.85 |
58.5 |
|
Medium |
2 |
0.3 |
0.003 |
5 |
7.80 |
78.0 |
8 |
7.80 |
78.0 |
|
25% higher |
3 |
0.375 |
0.00375 |
6 |
9.75 |
97.5 |
9 |
9.75 |
97.5 |
Tr. = Treatment. Treatment no. 10 = Untreated control. SDM =
Soil dressing method. TDM = Top dressing method. BM = Broadcasting method.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Field observations did not reveal phytotoxic
and retarded growth effects of carbofuran on plants. Generally,
stemborer infestation on leaves and stems at both sites was high; the UC
reveals 22.4% and 30.5% infested plants,
and 14% and 20.1% dead heart at GRS and SRS, respectively (Tables 2
and 3). This confirmed the findings of Abdalla (2005; 2006), that maize is more
subjected to stemborers attacks in winter than in summer season. This is
because both stemborer species prefer sorghum more than maize, and
sorghum is abundant in summer, hence, maize sown beside sorghum
in summer is considered a non-preference crop. In winter, due to
absence of sorghum, maize turns into non-choice crop.
Table 2. Percentage of
stemborers infested plants at Gezira (GRS)
and Sennar
Research Stations (SRS) farms, as affected with
different carbofuran methods of application and dose rates, winter season 2014/2015.
|
Treatment (dose: by product) |
GRS |
SRS |
||
|
% |
Method average |
% |
Method average |
|
|
1. SDM, 0.225 g /hole |
(16.2) 4.0 |
14.2 |
12.7 b |
10.5 |
|
2. SDM, 0.3 g /hole |
(13.9) 3.6 |
5.2 c |
||
|
3. SDM, 0.375 g /hole |
(12.6) 3.5 |
13.5 b |
||
|
4. TDM, 5.85 kg /fed |
(12.8) 3.6 |
14.5 |
15.3 b |
11.8 |
|
5. TDM, 7.8 kg /fed |
(13.9) 3.7 |
6.7 c |
||
|
6. TDM, 9.75 kg /fed |
(16.8) 4.1 |
13.5 b |
||
|
7. BM, 5.85 kg /fed |
(14.1) 3.8 |
14.9 |
14.2 b |
12.2 |
|
8. BM, 7.8 kg /fed |
(15.9) 4.0 |
7.0 c |
||
|
9. BM, 9.75 kg /fed |
(14.6) 3.8 |
15.5 b |
||
|
10. Untreated control |
(22.4) 4.7 |
|
30.5 a |
|
|
Significance |
ns. |
|
*** |
|
|
SE± |
0.20 |
|
1.1 |
|
|
CV% |
14.5 |
|
16.3 |
|
Data was transformed to
squire root, and means were compared using DMRT. analyzed. Actual figures in
parenthesis. ns.: not significant. SDM = Soil dressing method. TDM = Top
dressing method. BM = Broadcasting method. Means within a column followed by
the same letter are not significantly different at P≤ 0.01 (***) level of probability according to DMRT.
Table 3. Percentage of
dead heart plants, due to stemborers attack, at Gezira (GRS) and Sennar Research Stations (SRS) farms, as affected with different carbofuran
methods of application and dose rates, winter season 2014/2015.
|
Treatment (dose: by product) |
GRS Sum of 9 counts/season |
SRS Sum of 6 counts/season |
||
|
% |
Method average |
% |
Method average |
|
|
1. SDM, 0.225 g /hole |
(5.2) 2.3
bc |
6.1 |
(9.6) b |
7.3 |
|
2. SDM, 0.3 g /hole |
(9.4) 3.1
ab |
(3.0) b |
||
|
3. SDM, 0.375 g /hole |
(3.7) 2.0
c |
(9.3) b |
||
|
4. TDM, 5.85 kg /fed |
(5.1) 2.3
bc |
5.7 |
(8.7) b |
4.6 |
|
5. TDM, 7.8 kg /fed |
(3.8) 2.0
c |
(2.4) b |
||
|
6. TDM, 9.75 kg /fed |
(8.3) 2.9
abc |
(2.7) b |
||
|
7. BM, 5.85 kg /fed |
(7.0) 2.7
abc |
5.5 |
(2.4) b |
3.1 |
|
8. BM, 7.8 kg /fed |
(5.9) 2.5
bc |
(2.4) b |
||
|
9. BM, 9.75 kg /fed |
(3.6) 1.9
c |
(4.5) b |
||
|
10. Untreated control |
(14.0)
3.8 a |
|
(20.1)
a |
|
|
Significance |
*** |
|
*** |
|
|
SE± |
0.26 |
|
2.6 |
|
|
CV% |
20.2 |
|
19.9 |
|
Data in first column was
transformed to √x+0.5. Actual figures in both columns in parenthesis. SDM
= Soil dressing method. TDM = Top dressing method. BM = Broadcasting method.
Means within a column followed by the same letter (s) are not significantly
different at P≤ 0.001 (***) level of
probability according to DMRT.
The methods
averages of infested plants show remarkable reduction in the percentage of
infestation which was evident at both sites compared with the UC (Table 2). Slight
differences between the three methods were observed at SRS whereas no
noticeable differences were observed at GRS site. Similarly, the
methods averages of dead heart plants presented in Table 3 revealed remarkable
differences at both sites compared with the UC. SDM indicated consistently higher
percentage of dead heart plants at GRS (6.1%) and SRS (7.3%) compared to the two other TDM and BM. The latter two
methods showed almost similar values of dead heart 5.7% and 5.5% at GRS,
and slightly different values at SRS viz., 4.6% and 3.1%, respectively.
This difference could be justified in assuming that: The mode of carbofuran
action when applied as TDM acts through leaves; granules applied into whorls were
dissolved by means of dewdrops condensed on cool leaves` surface and transpired
water emitted through leaves, allowing carbofuran to get into direct
contact with emerged larvae, through short track, and killed them
before attacking the stems. In the case of BM, some of the broadcasted granules fall into the
whorls and some fall on the soil surface. Here, carbofuran acts
through both contact and systemic modes of action. The decreasing trend
of dead heart averages reported at both sites, in ordered SDM, TDM and BM, had shown inverse proportional effects
in number of cobs /fed, viz., 10200, 10700 and 11000 cobs /fed, respectively.
Hence, all methods of application
showed remarkable reduction of dead heart plants compared with the UC, and stand as optional for use depending on size
of the target area. However, BM
showed little superiority over SDM and TDM. In small holdings like "Jabrakas" in
South Kordofan State, where farmers grow maize in limited areas around
their cottage and in the Northern State and elsewhere, TDM and SDM are much suitable for
use. In wide plantations, BM
stands as the
most appropriate option. However, verification of the possibility
of associating BM together with urea application using the tractor mounted
broadcasting machine and SDM
together
with the seeds using the tractor mounted seed box machine are greatly
appreciated, as they shall contribute much in ease of the application
techniques if prove to be possible.
Regarding carbofuran effects, all
treatments reduced percentage of infested plants to a range of 12.6%-16.8% vs.
22.4% in
the UC at GRS and 5.2%-15.5%
vs. 30.5% in
the UC at SRS (Table 2). This clearly indicated
preventive effects of carbofuran that materialized by death of emerged larvae
that fed on leaves of treated plants. At the same time, this also
indicated that leaves served as first defense front that prevents plant heart
from being attacked. This was clearly evident on stems; a highly
significant reduction of dead heart plants was observed at both sites compared
to the UC (P≤0.01)
(Table 3). The
highest dose of SDM (0.375g/hole),
the medium
dose of TDM (7.8
kg/fed) and
the highest dose of BM (9.75
kg/fed) recorded
significantly lower percentage of dead heart, 3.7%, 3.8% and 3.6%, vs. 14.0% in the UC at GRS, and 9.3%, 2.4% and 4.5% vs. 20.1%
in the UC at SRS, respectively (P≤0.01) (Table 3).
Comparing
infested plants (Table 2) with dead heart plants (Table 3) at both sites,
it was persistently evident that in all treatments, including the UC, infested plants were higher than dead heart
plants. This indicated that not all emerged larvae that injured the
leaves could reach and damage the stems, largely due to carbofuran
fatal effect. These results completely agree
with those of many authors. Mir Khan (2000) stated
that Furadan 3G
(carbofuran) proved significant effect in reducing percentage of dead hearts
and pest infestation of maize with C. partellus stemborer. Ganguli et al. (2013) found that a single application of carbofuran
3G at 7.5 kg/ha in leaf whorl, in a 15 day-old maize crop proved
to be the most effective in protection against C. partellus stemborer.
An increase in plant stand at harvest was
evident in all carbofuran treatments at GRS; plant stand ranged 19.2-25.4 vs.
18.8 thousand/fed
in the UC. Carbofuran treatments
had also increased plant height to a range of 111-130 cm vs. 110 in the UC and variations induced
by SDM at 0.375g /hole attained significance (P≤0.05). This preservative effect
of carbofuran has had its consequences on agronomic, yield and yield
parameters. Increases in number of cobs/fed, cob`s length,
number of grains/cob and 1000-grain weight were also
evident. It is suggested that some maize characters, in
particular days to 50% tasseling and silking
are more affected by genetic and environmental factors (Tollenar et. al.,
1979)
(Table 4).
Table 4. Agronomic and yield parameters
of maize grown at Gezira Research Station(GRS) farm,
as affected
by different carbofuran methods of application and dose rates, winter season 2014/2015.
|
Treatment |
Plant stand /fed
at harvest (x1000) |
Plant height (cm) |
Days to 50%
tasseling |
Days to 50% silking |
First cob height (cm) |
Number of cobs / fed(x1000) |
Cob`s length (cm) |
Number of grains /cob |
1000-grain weight
(g) |
|
|
Treatment average |
Method average |
|||||||||
|
1 |
22.9 ab |
123
ab |
69 |
72 |
59 |
9.2 |
10.2 |
13.7 |
335 |
194 |
|
2 |
25.4 a |
113
b |
68 |
71 |
49 |
10.2 |
15.7 |
368 |
237 |
|
|
3 |
22.0 bc |
130
a |
69 |
72 |
61 |
11.2 |
16.3 |
355 |
231 |
|
|
4 |
19.2 c |
124
ab |
68 |
71 |
59 |
11.6 |
10.7 |
16.0 |
392 |
221 |
|
5 |
20.2 bc |
123
ab |
69 |
72 |
60 |
11.5 |
150.3 |
384 |
221 |
|
|
6 |
20.4 bc |
129
a |
69 |
72 |
59 |
9.1 |
14.0 |
387 |
212 |
|
|
7 |
21.1 bc |
119
ab |
69 |
72 |
62 |
11.3 |
11.0 |
16.7 |
378 |
208 |
|
8 |
20.9 bc |
111
b |
68 |
71 |
49 |
9.0 |
16.0 |
300 |
248 |
|
|
9 |
20.6 bc |
119
ab |
69 |
72 |
51 |
12.6 |
15.7 |
362 |
250 |
|
|
10 |
18.8 c |
110
b |
68 |
71 |
50 |
8.8 |
|
14.3 |
310 |
191 |
|
Sig. |
* |
** |
ns |
ns |
ns |
ns |
ns |
ns |
ns |
|
|
SE± |
1143 |
4.4 |
0.3 |
0.3 |
3.6 |
1460 |
0.9 |
30.9 |
15.2 |
|
|
CV% |
9.4 |
6.4 |
0.8 |
0.8 |
11.3 |
24.2 |
9.9 |
14.7 |
11.9 |
|
Treatments as indicated
in Table 2. Means within columns followed by the same letter (s) are not
significantly different at
P≤
0.05 (**) and P≤ 0.01 (*) level of probability, according to DMRT. ns. : Not significant.
With regard to grain yields, all carbofuran
treatments out-yielded the UC by 32-105% at GRS and 46-175% at SRS. The
yield recorded by the medium dose of TDM (7.8 kg /fed) (2.2
ton/fed) at SRS, was almost three times as much as that of the UC
(0.8 ton/fed) and variation attained significance at P≤0.05.
Straw yield was also increased by most of carbofuran treatments, and the
highest dose of SDM (0.375 g /hole) recoded significantly the highest
straw yield, viz., 1.92 ton /fed, vs.
1.32 ton /fed in the UC ((P≤0.1) (Table 5). These
results came in full harmony with those of Abdalla (2000; 2005;
and 2006) and Mir Khan (2000). The latter author stated that
Furadan 3G used for the control of C. partellus stemborer in
maize proved significant increase of stalk, cobs weight, average
number of cobs/plant and grain yield compared to the check. Studying the
effects of carbofuran at 1.0 and 1.5 kg a.i/ha on agronomic and
yield parameters in C. partellus
infested maize zones in Nigeria, Okweche
et al. (2013) reported significant increase in
plant height and yield and reduction of the stemborer. Studies in India,
resulted in significantly less numbers of C. partellus infested maize
plants and higher grain yield in carbofuran
treatment at 15 kg/ha compared to other treatments (Pradyumn and Sharma, 2009).
Table 5. Grain yield of maize grown at Gezira Research
Station (GRS) and Sennar Research Station (SRS) farms, and dry straw yield at
GRS farm, winter season 2014/2015.
|
Treatment (dose: by product) |
Grain yield, (ton /fed) |
Dry straw yield, GRS (ton /fed) |
|
|
GRS |
SRS |
||
|
1. SDM, 0.225 g /hole |
0.75 |
1.17 bc |
1.68 abc |
|
2. SDM, 0.3 g /hole |
1.08 |
1.95 ab |
1.90 a |
|
3. SDM, 0.375 g /hole |
1.17 |
1.45 abc |
1.92 a |
|
4. TDM, 5.85 kg /fed |
0.89 |
1.22 bc |
1.24 cd |
|
5. TDM, 7.8 kg /fed |
1.05 |
2.20 a |
1.80 ab |
|
6. TDM, 9.75 kg /fed |
0.86 |
1.62 abc |
1.54 abcd |
|
7. BM, 5.85 kg /fed |
0.85 |
1.22 bc |
1.56 abcd |
|
8. BM, 7.8 kg /fed |
0.78 |
1.75 ab |
1.11 d |
|
9. BM, 9.75 kg /fed |
0.93 |
1.61 abc |
1.52 abcd |
|
10. Untreated control |
0.57 |
0.80 c |
1.32 bcd |
|
Significance |
ns |
** |
* |
|
SE± |
0.15 |
0.21 |
0.16 |
|
CV% |
29.2 |
28.3 |
18.4 |
SDM = Soil dressing
method. TDM =Top dressing method. BM = Broadcasting method. Means within
columns followed by the same letter (s) are not significantly different
at P≤ 0.05 and P≤ 0.01 levels of probability,
according to DMRT.
No residues of carbofuran and its
metabolites were detected in grain samples; thus, the use of
granulated carbofuran for control of stemborers in maize is safe at the
recommended methods of application and dose rates.
CONCLUSION
Carbofuran, in form of "Carbodan 10G®", proved efficiency in suppressing stemborers in
maize; the highest dose applied as soil dressing with the seeds (0.375g product/hole, equivalent to 9.75 kg/fed), the medium
dose applied into whorls after emergence as top dressing (7.8kg product/fed) and the highest dose
applied around stems after emergence as broadcasting (9.75 kg product /fed) markedly reduced
leaves and dead heart damage. All methods of application showed
remarkable reduction of dead heart plants, hence, they are
suggested as optional for use in accordance with the size of target area and
suitability of timing of application. Carbofuran had also improved
agronomic and yield parameters, and increased grain and straw yield.
However, BM showed little superiority over SDM
and TDM.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Carbodan 10G® (carbofuran) is recommended
at the following methods of application and dose rates for the control of maize
infesting stemborers Chilo partellus and Sesamia cretica:-
1. As soil
dressing, applied with the seeds at sowing, at 0.375g product /hole (0.00375g a.i./hole)
equivalent to 9.75 kg
/fed (97.5g a.i./fed).
2.
As top dressing, applied into whorls after emergence, at 7.8 kg product /fed (78.0g a.i./fed).
3.
As broadcasting, applied around stems after emergence, at 9.75 kg product /fed (97.5
g a.i./fed).
REFERENCES
Abdalla, T. E. 2006. Effects of some biological and chemical
products against stemborer complex in summer and winter maize. Annual Report 2005/2006. Entomology Section, Crop
Protection Research Centre, ARC, Sudan.
Abdalla, T. E. 2005. Effects of some biological and chemical products
against stemborer complex in summer and winter maize. Annual Report 2004/2005. Entomology Section, Crop
Protection Research Centre, ARC, Sudan.
Abdalla, T. E. 2000. The effects of some
insecticides for the control of stemborer complex in winter maize.
Annual Report 1999/2000. Entomology Section,
Crop Protection Research Centre, ARC, Sudan.
CAB. 1977. Chilo partellus (Swinhe) Distribution
Map of Pests No. 184 (revised). Common Wealth Agricultural Bureaux,
Common Wealth Institute of Entomology, London.
El Amin, E. M. 1984. Relative susceptibility of seven sugar cane
cultivars to stemborer Sesamia cretica Led. under condition of
natural infestation at Sennar, Sudan. Beitrage Zur tropischen
land wirtschaft and veterinarmedzin 22:
72-77.
Khan, Z. R., A.
Hassanali, J. A. Picketi, L. J.
Wadhams and F. Muyekho. 2003.
Strategies for control of cereal stemborers and striga weed in maize-based
farming systems in eastern Africa involving "push-Pull" and
allelophathic tactics, respectively. Proceedings of African Crop
Science Conference 6:
602-608.
Mir Khan. 2000.
Chemical control of maize stemborer (Chilo partellus Swin.). Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 3(12): 2116-2118.
Overholt, W.
A., K. V. N. Maese and F. R. Goebel. 2001.
Biology of Sesamia calamistis (Hampson) Noctuidae. Field guide to
the stemborers larvae of maize, sorghum and sugar cane in Eastern and
Southern Africa.
Okweche, Simon Idoko, Umoetok, A. Sylvia Bassey and O.
Osai Ephraim. 2013. Effects
of synthetic (Carbofuran) and non synthetic insecticides on maize growth and yield
in stemborers infested zones of Cross River State, Nigeria. Biology,
Agriculture and Health Care 3 (1):
53-57.
Pradyumn Singh and R. K. Sharma. 2009. Effect of insecticides for the control of maize stem borer Chilo
partellus (Swinhoe). Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences (43)3: 577-578.
Schmutterer, H. 1969.
Pests of Crops in Northeast and Central Africa, Gustav Fischer Verlag,
Portland, USA.
Seshu Reddy, K. V. and
K.O. Sum. 1992. Yield-infestation relationship and
determination of economic injury level of the stemborer, Chilo
partellus (Swinhoe) in three varieties of maize, Zea mays.
Maydica 37: 371-376.
Tollenar, M., T. B.
Daynard and R. B. Hunter. 1979. Effect of
temperature on rate of leaf appearance and flowering date in maize. Crop Science 19: 363-366.